isidroleon

Cause and Effect

2008-06-18T01:35:13+00:00

Cause and Effect

What were the causes of the American Civil War? the causes of World War I? the causes of the American Great Depression? What caused the AIDS epidemic? the bubonic plague? What are the causes of unrest in Ireland? the Middle East?

What effects can be attributed to phenomena such as El Niño? the hippies of the 1950s and 60s? the Civil Rights movement of the 50s and 60s? Affirmative Action? Apartheid? the uses of DDT? holes in the ozone layer?

Cause and effect papers are among the most common (and among the most fun to write) papers in a Composition course. It is intriguing to explore the causes of some event that you always took for granted or to chronicle the effects of some phenomenon in society or nature. The two strategic points you have to consider are (1) whether you're exploring causes or effects or both and (2) what is the order of the causes or effects you're going to pursue — from least to most important or vice versa.

In the following two paragraphs, Bob Kutter analyzes the effects on American workers of an economy that relies increasingly on technology. In a sense, the paragraphs provide an outline for exploring the various causes and effects which are the substance of the article. In these paragraphs, what sentences could be listed as major points and what sentences play a supporting role? What is the role of the first sentence in each paragraph?

http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/GRAMMAR/composition/cause_effect.htm

Comparacion/Contraste

2008-06-07T20:56:19+00:00

Comparing and Contrasting

What this handout is about

This handout will help you first to determine whether a particular assignment is asking for comparison/contrast and then to generate a list of similarities and differences, decide which similarities and differences to focus on, and organize your paper so that it will be clear and effective. It will also explain how you can (and why you should) develop a thesis that goes beyond "Thing A and Thing B are similar in many ways but different in others."

Introduction

In your career as a student, you'll encounter many different kinds of writing assignments, each with its own requirements. One of the most common is the comparison/contrast essay, in which you focus on the ways in which certain things or ideas—usually two of them—are similar to (this is the comparison) and/or different from (this is the contrast) one another. By assigning such essays, your instructors are encouraging you to make connections between texts or ideas, engage in critical thinking, and go beyond mere description or summary to generate interesting analysis: when you reflect on similarities and differences, you gain a deeper understanding of the items you are comparing, their relationship to each other, and what is most important about them.

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Recognizing comparison/contrast in assignments

Some assignments use words—like compare, contrast, similarities, and differences—that make it easy for you to see that they are asking you to compare and/or contrast. Here are a few hypothetical examples:

Compare and contrast Frye's and Bartky's accounts of oppression.
Compare WWI to WWII, identifying similarities in the causes, development, and outcomes of the wars.
Contrast Wordsworth and Coleridge; what are the major differences in their poetry?

Notice that some topics ask only for comparison, others only for contrast, and others for both.

But it's not always so easy to tell whether an assignment is asking you to include comparison/contrast. And in some cases, comparison/contrast is only part of the essay—you begin by comparing and/or contrasting two or more things and then use what you've learned to construct an argument or evaluation. Consider these examples, noticing the language that is used to ask for the comparison/contrast and whether the comparison/contrast is only one part of a larger assignment:

Choose a particular idea or theme, such as romantic love, death, or nature, and consider how it is treated in two Romantic poems.
How do the different authors we have studied so far define and describe oppression?
Compare Frye's and Bartky's accounts of oppression. What does each imply about women's collusion in their own oppression? Which is more accurate?
In the texts we've studied, soldiers who served in different wars offer differing accounts of their experiences and feelings both during and after the fighting. What commonalities are there in these accounts? What factors do you think are responsible for their differences?

You may want to check out our handout on understanding assignments for additional tips.

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Using comparison/contrast for all kinds of writing projects

Sometimes you may want to use comparison/contrast techniques in your own pre-writing work to get ideas that you can later use for an argument, even if comparison/contrast isn't an official requirement for the paper you're writing. For example, if you wanted to argue that Frye's account of oppression is better than both de Beauvoir's and Bartky's, comparing and contrasting the main arguments of those three authors might help you construct your evaluation—even though the topic may not have asked for comparison/contrast and the lists of similarities and differences you generate may not appear anywhere in the final draft of your paper.

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Discovering similarities and differences

Making a Venn diagram or a chart can help you quickly and efficiently compare and contrast two or more things or ideas. To make a Venn diagram, simply draw some overlapping circles, one circle for each item you're considering. In the central area where they overlap, list the traits the two items have in common. Assign each one of the areas that doesn't overlap; in those areas, you can list the traits that make the things different. Here's a very simple example, using two pizza places:

http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/comparison_contrast.html

Comparacion/Contraste

2008-06-07T20:47:28+00:00

Comparison Conjunctions In the above paragraphs you will see various conjunctions that contribute to paragraph coherence. We can look at the above paragraphs again to see how the conjunctions are used:

My hometown and my college town have several things in common. First, both are small rural communities. For example, my hometown, Gridlock, has a population of only about 10,000 people. Similarly, my college town, Subnormal, consists of about 11,000 local residents. This population swells to 15,000 people when the college students are attending classes. A second way in which these two towns are similar is that they are both located in rural areas. Gridlock is surrounded by many acres of farmland which is devoted mainly to growing corn and soybeans. In the same way, Subnormal lies in the center of farmland which is used to raise hogs and cattle. Thirdly, these towns are similar in that they contain college campuses. Gridlock, for example, is home to Neutron College, which is famous for its Agricultural Economics program as well as for its annual Corn-Watching Festival. Likewise, the town of Subnormal boasts the beautiful campus of Quark College, which is well known for its Agricultural Engineering department and also for its yearly Hog-Calling Contest.

This paragraph, of course, is organized according to similarities. Notice how the ORDER of the similarities is the same throughout the paragraph. That is, at each similar point, the paragraph first discusses Gridlock and then it discusses Subnormal. Keeping the same order throughout the paragraph prevents the reader from getting confused. Also notice how the conjunctions (for example, similarly, and ...X are similar in that...) are placed near each similar point. Now examine the following paragraph, which is organized by subtopic:

My hometown and my college town are similar in several ways. First, my hometown, Gridlock, is a small town. It has a population of only about 10,000 people. Located in a rural area, Gridlock is surrounded by many acres of farmland which are devoted mainly to growing corn and soybeans. Gridlock also contains a college campus, Neutron College, which is famous for its Agricultural Economics program as well as for its annual Corn-Watching Festival. As for my college town, Subnormal, it too is small, having a population of about 11,000 local residents, which swells to 15,000 people when students from the nearby college are attending classes. Like Gridlock, Subnormal lies in the center of farmland which is used to raise hogs and cattle. Finally, Subnormal is similar to Gridlock in that it also boasts a beautiful college campus, called Quark College. This college is well known for its Agricultural Engineering department and also for its yearly Hog-Calling Contest.

These are not the only ways to give coherence to a comparison paragraph. There are other conjunctions, too. Here is a list of comparison conjunctions you can use:

Short Conjunctions	Longer Expressions
Similarly, Likewise, ...the same... ...the same as... ...also... ..., too. both	In the same way, X is similar to Y in that (they)... X and Y are similar in that (they)... Like X, Y [verb]... In like manner, One way in which X is similar to Y is (that)... Another way in which X is similar to Y is (that)...

Contrast Paragraphs As mentioned above, a contrast paragraph discusses the differences between (at least) two things. You can organize contrast paragraphs in much the same way that you can organize comparison paragraphs. That is, you can organize them either according to points of similarity or according to subtopic. Here is an example of such a paragraph organized by subtopic. Notice the contrastive expressions in bold letters:

Even though Arizona and Rhode Island are both states of the U.S., they are strikingly different in many ways. For example, the physical size of each state is different. Arizona is large, having an area of 114,000 square miles, whereas Rhode Island is only about a tenth the size, having an area of only 1,214 square miles. Another difference is in the size of the population of each state. Arizona has about four million people living in it, but Rhode Island has less than one million. The two states also differ in the kinds of natural environments that each has. For example, Arizona is a very dry state, consisting of large desert areas that do not receive much rainfall every year. However, Rhode Island is located in a temperate zone and receives an average of 44 inches of rain per year. In addition, while Arizona is a landlocked state and thus has no seashore, Rhode Island lies on the Atlantic Ocean and does have a significant coastline.

Here are some contrast conjunctions that you can use:

Short Conjunctions	Subordinating Conjunctions
However, In contrast, By contrast, ..., but ..., yet	On the other hand, even though + [sentence] although + [sentence] whereas + [sentence] unlike + [sentence] while + [sentence] nevertheless,

http://lrs.ed.uiuc.edu/students/fwalters/compcont.html#conj

Palabras de Transicion

2008-06-07T20:42:10+00:00

TRANSITION WORDS AND PHRASES: COMPARISON (Palabras y frases de transición: Comparación)
Definición: Son palabras y frases que ayudan a establecer ideas y relaciones de comparación entre oraciones.
Ejemplo/s: again, also, in the same way, likewise, once more, similarly... ()

TRANSITION WORDS AND PHRASES: CONCESSION (Palabras y frases de transición: Concesión)
Definición: Son palabras y frases que ayudan a establecer ideas y relaciones de concesión entre oraciones.
Ejemplo/s: although it is true that, granted that, I admit that, it may appear that, naturally, of course... ()

TRANSITION WORDS AND PHRASES: CONCLUSION (Palabras y frases de transición: Conclusión)
Definición: Son palabras y frases que ayudan a establecer ideas y relaciones de conclusión entre oraciones.
Ejemplo/s: as a result, as has been noted, as I have said, as we have seen, as mentioned earlier ... ()

TRANSITION WORDS AND PHRASES: CONTRAST (Palabras y frases de transición: Contraste)
Definición: Son palabras y frases que ayudan a establecer ideas y relaciones de contraste entre oraciones.
Ejemplo/s: although, but, despite, even though, however, in contrast, in spite of, instead, nevertheless... ()

TRANSITION WORDS AND PHRASES: EXAMPLE (Palabras y frases de transición: Ejemplo)
Definición: Son palabras y frases que ayudan a establecer ideas y relaciones de ejemplo entre oraciones.
Ejemplo/s: after all, even, for example, for instance, indeed, in fact, of course, specifically, such as ... ()

TRANSITION WORDS AND PHRASES: PLACE (Palabras y frases de transición: Lugar)
Definición: Son palabras y frases que ayudan a establecer ideas y relaciones de lugar entre oraciones.
Ejemplo/s: above, adjacent to, below, beyond, closer to, elsewhere, far, farther on, here, near, nearby... ()

TRANSITION WORDS AND PHRASES: SEQUENCE (Palabras y frases de transición: Secuencia)
Definición: Son palabras y frases que ayudan a establecer ideas y relaciones de secuencia entre oraciones.
Ejemplo/s: again, also, and, and then, besides, finally, first...second...third, furthermore, last... ()

TRANSITION WORDS AND PHRASES: TIME (Palabras y frases de transición: Tiempo)
Definición: Son palabras y frases que ayudan a establecer ideas y relaciones de tiempo entre oraciones.
Ejemplo/s: after a bit, after a few days, after a while, afterward, as long as, as soon as, at last... ()

http://www.e-aprender-ingles.com/index2.php?go=gramatica&letra=t

CONJUNCIONES

2008-06-07T20:39:40+00:00

Podemos agrupar las conjunciones en COORDINATIVAS y SUBORDINATIVAS, entendiendo por coordinativas aquéllas que unen palabras u oraciones de la misma categoría y subordinativas, las que unen una oración principal y una subordinada.

COORDINATIVAS

and, y
now, ahora bien
but, pero
still, no obstante
yet, sin embargo
only, sólo que
while, mientras
then, entonces

so, así que
so then, por tanto
for, pues
either... or..., o... o...
neither... nor..., ni... ni...
however, no obstante
therefore, por lo tanto
nevertheless, sin embargo

SUBORDINATIVAS

that, que
because of, debido a
since, ya que, puesto que
as, pues, como
so that, a fin de que
lest, para (que) no
if, si
unless, a menos que

although, though, aunque
while, en tanto que
until, hasta que
as if, as though, como si
when, cuando
why, por que
in order that, para, a fin de que
whether... or, si... o

http://www.ompersonal.com.ar/omgrammar/conjunciones.htm

Gerundios

2008-05-22T22:41:18+00:00

El inglés tiene dos tipos de sustantivos verbales, el infinitivo (con o sin "to") y el gerundio (la terminación -ing). La mayoría de los verbos que toman un sustantivo verbal pueden estar seguidos de uno u otro (un gerundio o un infinitivo, pero no ambos). Sin embargo, existen determinados verbos a los que puede seguirle indistintamente un gerundio o un infinitivo. A ellos nos referiremos aquí...

VERBOS
A algunos verbos puede seguirles el gerundio o el infinitivo y es sólo una cuestión de estilo cómo y cuándo utilizarlos. Tres de estos verbos son continue (continuar), start (arrancar, comenzar) y begin (comenzar, iniciar).

The fans continued to shout / shouting at the referee.
Helen started to cough / coughing because of her bad cold.
It began to rain / raining.

Otros verbos pueden tomar el gerundio o el infinitivo en la mayoría de los tiempos verbales (aunque el inglés británico prefiere el gerundio, el infinitivo es muy común en inglés americano), pero sólo se los usa con el infinitivo cuando se encuentran en condicional. Estos verbos son: hate (odiar, no gustar), love (amar), can't bear (no soportar), like (gustar), dislike (disgustar) y prefer (preferir).

I hate talking to her.
I like to get up early on Sunday mornings and go riding.

... but:

I like getting up early on Sunday mornings to go riding.
I couldn't bear to live in that country.
I'd prefer to see the manager early tomorrow.

CARACTERISTICAS DE LOS VERBOS MODALES

2008-05-23T15:53:30+00:00

Verbos modales

Los verbos modales en Inglés son:
can, could, may, might, will, would, should and must .

Características de los verbos modales

Se usan antes de los infinitivos de otros verbos y muestran el grado de seguridad, obligación, etc. de las acciones que se llevan a cabo.
No llevan 's' en la 3º persona del singular.
Ej. She must help me ( Ella debe de ayudarme )
después del verbo modal usamos el infinitivo sin el 'to'.
Ej. You must go to the doctor (Debes ir al médico )
Se usan para describir el grado de certeza: seguro, probable, posible o imposible y para expresar la obligación y la libertad de acción.

Grados de Certeza:

Certeza total: must, mustn't, will, won't, can, can't.
Probabilidad, posibilidad: Should, shouldn't, may, may not
Débil probabilidad o posibilidad: might, might not, could, couldn't
Condicionalidad o posibilidad: Would, wouldn't, could, couldn't.

Grados de obligación:

Obligación fuerte: must
Prohibición: must not, can't
Obligación débil: should, might, may
Voluntad, insistencia y ofrecimientos: will, would
Permiso: can, may, might
Habilidad: can

OUGHT TO

2007-11-06T08:17:12+00:00

Ought to (debería). Se usa de forma similar al should

Affirmative: ought to	Negative: ought not to	Inte: Ought + S + to ...?
I ought to study more Debería estudiar más	He ought not to drink Él no debería beber	Ought I to be here early? ¿Debería estar aquí temprano?
We ought to finish this now Deberíamos termionar esto ahora	They oughtn't to play at work Ellos no deberían jugar en el trabajo	Ought we to leave now? ¿Deberíamos irnos ahora?

Affirmative

You

She

You

They

ought to

come

work

live

speak

...

Negative

You

She

You

They

ought not to oughtn't to

come

work

live

speak

...

Interrogative

Ought

you

she

you

they

to go ?

to come ?

to work ?

to live ?

to speak ?

...

MUST

2007-11-06T08:09:22+00:00

Must (deber). p.ej. I must = (debo). p/ Obligation/Assumption (obligación más fuerte que should)

Affirmative: must	Neg: must not/ mustn't	Interrogative Must...?
A student must study Un estudiante debe estudiar	I must not waste my time No debo desperdiciar mi tiempo	Must you go there now? ¿Debes ir ahí ahora?
An athlete must train hard Un atleta debe entrenar duro	You mustn't drink and drive No debes beber y conducir	Must I call them? ¿Debo llamarlos?
He must follow a diet Él debe seguir una dieta	She mustn't see this Ella no debe ver esto	Must he study this? ¿Debe él estudiar esto?
That must be near Eso debe de estar cerca (supongo)	You must not tell lies No debes decir mentiras	Must she stay in bed? ¿Debe ella quedarse en cama?
It must be closed Debe de estar cerrado (supongo)	We must not steal No debemos robar	Must it be sent today? ¿Debe ser enviado hoy?
We must hurry Debemos apurarnos	They mustn't speak that way Ellos no deben hablar de esa forma	Must they start tomorrow? ¿Deben ellos empezar mañana?
Everybody must pay taxes Todos deben pagar impuestos	She mustn't arrive late Ella no deber llegar tarde	Must I be with you? ¿Debo estar contigo?
They must get up early Ellos deben levantarse temprano	The kids must not play here Los niños no deben jugar aquí	Must they stay here? ¿Deben ellos quedarse aquí?

Affirmative

You

She

You

They

must

come

work

live

speak

...

Negative

You

She

You

They

must not mustn't

come

work

live

speak

...

Interrogative

Must

you

she

you

they

go ?

come ?

work ?

live ?

speak ?

...

SHOULD

2007-11-06T08:05:59+00:00

Should (debería). Se usa para expresar una obligación menor

Affirmative: should	Neg: should not/ shouldn't	Interrogative Should ...?
I should study more Debería estudiar más	I shouldn't waste my time No debería desperdiciar mi tiempo	Should you go there now? ¿Deberías ir ahí ahora?
You should drive carefully Tú deberías conducir con cuidado	You shouldn't drink so much No deberías tomar tanto	Should I help them? ¿Debería ayudarlos?
He should eat less Él debería comer menos	She shouldn't go alone Él no debería ir sola	Should he study this? ¿Debería él estudiar esto?
That should be prohibited Eso debería estar prohibido	It shouldn't be permitted No debería estar permitido	Should she stay in bed? ¿Debería ella quedarse en cama?
It should be closed Debería estar cerrado	We shouldn't stay outside No deberíamos quedarnos afuera	Should it fly? ¿Debería volar?
We should hurry Deberíamos apurarnos	They shouldn't know this Ellos no deberían saber esto	Should they start tomorrow? ¿Deberían ellos empezar mañana?
Everybody should see this Todo el mundo debería ver esto	She shouldn't say that Ella no debería decir eso	Should I be with you? ¿Debería yo estar contigo?
They should be working Ellos deberían estar trabajando	They shoudn't live here Ellos no deberían vivir aquí	Should they stay here? ¿Deberían ellos quedarse aquí?

Affirmative

You

She

You

They

should

come

work

live

speak

...

Negative

You

She

You

They

should not shouldn't

come

work

live

speak

...

Interrogative

Should

you

she

you

they

go ?

come ?

work ?

live ?

speak ?

...